Cigarette smoke is a highly complex mixture of more than 4000 chemical compounds that are distributed in aqueous, gas, and the tar phase of the smoke
One of the biologically most active carotenoids against oxidative damage, lycopene, contains 11 conjugated double bonds and has been reported to have anticancer activities via regulation of oxidative enzymes such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), inhibitory effect on tumor growth and progression, triggering apoptosis, modulation of proteins involved in cell cycle regulation, reduction of the incidence of breast, liver, pancreatic and other cancers (Tang et al
Intriguingly, DNA vaccines effectively induce cell-mediated Th1 immune responses with increased proliferation of CD4 + T cells and CD8 + T cells in animals, and have a higher safety profile than vector vaccines ( S
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