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Microbial-derived metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including acetate, propionate, and butyrate, tryptophan derivatives, including indoxyl sulfate (IS), indole-3-aldehyde (IAld), and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and lipid derivatives, play a bridging role between the gut and host ( Figure 2 ) [39, 40]

Together, they amplify pulsatile GH secretion, leading to increased IGF-1 levels and broad systemic support for tissue repair, recovery, and metabolism in research models

Discussion MB has been studied sporadically for over 100 years with its initial biological activity uncovered in the 1890s [32]

Seedling experiments were carried out in a plant growth room (25 2/18 2 C day/night temperature and 65 5 RH) in a hydroponic system